2.1 The area

(Paolo Del Vesco)

In 2022, work concentrated in eight grid squares (V79-82; W79-82), an area of about 200 m² (Fig. 1) where a new tomb entrance had been identified in 2018 and in 2019 most of its perimeter had been cleared, with the deposits in its southeast corner explored by means of a limited sondage. Work was resumed here with the aim of preparing the area before proceeding to excavate the new tomb. The modern deposits found in 2019 on the slope of a small mound in the northern part of the area did not allow correct and safe exploration of the new tomb; the excavation area was therefore expanded, mainly towards the north and west.

At the northwest and southwest corners of the area, two very large pits were found. The southwestern one (context 385) appeared to have been cut from at least elevation 58.70 m down to below the level of the new tomb floor, and to have destroyed the corner walls of the tomb. It was filled with a deposit of very fine and clear wind-blown sand (context 384) resulting in a vertical sequence of layers of loose sand divided by slightly more compact sand crusts, formed whenever the surface of the sand deposit remained exposed to the air for some time. Very similar pits had already been found in other sectors of the excavation area, both inside and outside the new tomb, since 2018. 141-142 They are probably a result of the activity of nineteenth- to early-twentieth-century seekers of antiquities. In square W79, to the west of tomb wall 367, the remains of two other features, cut by the above-mentioned pits, were uncovered: a compact layer made of tafla and mud-brick rubble (context 388), about 90-114 cm wide, and a mud-brick wall (context 389) running parallel to the west wall of the tomb along a north-south axis for 4.24 m (Fig. 2). The function of these features and their relationship with the tomb are not yet clear. The two parallel walls appear to have been razed at an elevation of about 57.63 m and were connected to context 388, maybe to create a sort of outer walking surface that remained exposed to air and atmospheric weathering, as the diffuse presence of small concretions seems to suggest.

In square V80, to the south of the missing section of the southern wall of the tomb of Panehsy and near its southwest corner, the remains of three walls of well-laid mud bricks faced with thick white mortar (contexts 391 and 392) were found resting on walls made of limestone shards. These may have been part of a Late Period funerary shaft that originally abutted the exterior of the tomb wall. A loose light-brown sand deposit found in this spot (context 394) most likely originated from the destruction and plundering of this burial shaft and contained abundant wooden fragments and bones.

Two other brown deposits (contexts 424 and 425), found inside the central and southern chapels of the tomb, can be dated to a time-span ranging between the late New Kingdom and the Late Period (see Section 7.1 for the finds) and testify to an initial abandonment phase of the tomb, to its reuse for later burials, and to the ancient plundering of these later burials as well, before the area of the tomb was ultimately deserted and covered by wind-blown sand deposits. A thick medium-compact yellowish deposit (context 303), covering the paved floor of the tomb and recognizable as the same compact tafla surface over which the later Ramesside chapels found in the surrounding area were built, might be evidence of the first phase of abandonment of Panehsy’s tomb. During this phase, the tomb might already have been stripped of many limestone slabs, which might have been used to build some of the small funerary chapels found to the east of the tomb.

In W81, inside the tomb, another large robbery pit was identified (context 407), within which a carefully laid retaining wall made of limestone shards and mud-brick pieces (context 405) had been built by the diggers in order to safely reach the opening of the funerary shaft of the tomb (Fig. 3) and from there proceed to the underground chambers.4

143 In 2023, the excavation work concentrated in the area immediately outside the northeast corner of the tomb of Panehsy, with the aim of better understanding the relationship between the tomb and the spaces contiguous to it, where during previous seasons an interesting stratigraphy of occupation layers dating from the late Ramesside period to Late Antiquity had been found. Close to the northern edge of squares X82–83, new structures were found pertaining to Late Antique occupation layers, which most likely were originally connected to very similar structures and deposits already unearthed in W82–83 during the 2017 and 2018 seasons. Some structures were built directly on top of the remains of the aforementioned Ramesside funerary chapels, while others were lying on a wind-blown deposit of clean sand that had covered the abandoned and ruined Ramesside chapels. The remains of Late Antique layers include mud-brick walls on stone foundations (context 207), mudbrick (contexts 243 and 517) and stone-paved floors (context 524), and various installations. The present state of preservation of these sparse remains, which were badly damaged by digging activity of nineteenth-century antiquities seekers,5 prevents us from fully understanding the original layout and function of these structures. Some of the installations are particularly interesting and deserve at least a short mention. A circular pottery basin (context 211), for instance, appears to have been installed during a later phase of these Late Antique occupation layers, half-buried in the floor and cutting a small round pit in the stone foundation of an earlier wall. Initially used for storage and subsequently as a trash bin, it was eventually filled and sealed with a layer of white plaster, the basin’s rim still protruding from the plaster. This indicates it was repurposed as a working surface, perhaps an installation for processing food or other materials (Fig. 4).

Another interesting feature is a subcircular mud-brick structure (context 509) found in square X82, which might have been used for storage during a first phase and as a garbage pit during a second phase.6 Its internal diameter is around 68 cm and its depth 126 cm. At some point it was divided into two sectors (the smaller being 26 cm wide) by the construction of a mud-brick partition wall (Fig. 5). This installation was found filled with lots of different discarded materials: shells, fruit stones, several fragments 144-145 of glass cups, fragments of faience shabtis, wooden combs, wooden piercing and weaving tools, tiny faience beads, fourteen coins and a bronze ring (see Section 7.2). A third installation that deserves to be mentioned is a drainage system made of the reused necks of Roman amphoras (context 571), inserted one into the other and probably connected to a drainage hole found in a sort of stone basin reused in stone-paved floor 524 (Fig. 6; see Gasperini’s article in this issue of RiME).

An approximate date for these structures and deposits is suggested by a first analysis of the pottery fragments, which can be dated to between the seventh and mid-eighth century CE (see Section 5.2.3). For this time frame, at least two phases of occupation can be distinguished on the basis of stratified floor levels and interventions on the structures. Besides those already mentioned, the finds from these structures also included reused inscribed limestone blocks originating from the plundering of Pharaonic monuments.

Several embalmers’ caches dating from the Late Period onward were also found, very similar to those unearthed during the 2018 season and mainly dating to the fifth century BCE. In most of the excavated area (W82–83 and X83–84), the Ramesside tafla surface (context 303) was reached. Square X84 yielded a burial in a wooden coffin (context 562) that had been placed in a pit (context 530) cut into this surface. Straddling the border between squares X83 and X84, the remains of a new Ramesside chapel (context 545) with its funerary shaft were uncovered (see Section 2.3).

2.2 The tomb of Panehsy (V82.1)

(Nico Staring and Lara Weiss)

The 2022 and 2023 fieldwork seasons largely focused on the excavation of tomb V82.1 and its immediate environs in order to understand its relation to the surrounding structures. The tomb’s walls had first surfaced in 2017, but it was not until the 2019 field season that most of its perimeter walls were cleared from the sand and the floor level was reached in a sondage made in the southeast quadrant of the courtyard.7 The deposits that filled the tomb’s superstructure were carefully excavated in 2022 and much of the subterranean burial complex was excavated during the 2022 and 2023 seasons (see Figs. 26, 27 and Fig. 32, below). Inscriptions unearthed during the 2022 season allowed us to identify the tomb’s owners as the steward of (the temple of) Amun, Panehsy, and his spouse Baia, singer of Amun-bunakhtef.8 Judging from its construction technique (mud-brick walls faced with limestone blocks),9 stratigraphic position (the floor blocks of Panehsy’s courtyard lie c. 60 cm higher than those of Maya’s), and location (it is built against the exterior north wall of Maya), the tomb of Panehsy was provisionally dated to the early Ramesside period.10 The date conforms to the general northward expansion of the cemetery over time.11 The tomb of Panehsy thus bridges a chronological gap in the Unas South Cemetery between the Leiden-Turin concession area and that of Cairo University to the north.12 Additional archaeological and iconographical evidence acquired during the 2022 and 2023 field seasons further corroborate the hypothesis that the tomb should be placed in the early Ramesside period. A preliminary analysis of its wall relief decoration suggests a date between the end of the reign of Horemheb and the second decade of Ramesses II (see Section 2.2.3–4). A study of the ceramics demonstrates that 95% of the material recovered from the tomb’s subterranean complex is Ramesside, and that material found in certain closed contexts in the superstructure points to a first usage of the tomb in the early Nineteenth Dynasty (see Section 5.2.1).

2.2.2 Superstructure

The tomb’s superstructure is built on an east-west axis. It is 13.4 m long and 8.2 m wide (Figs. 7, 8). It features an entrance pylon, an open columned courtyard with access to the burial shaft in the centre, and three chapels in the west. Two columns supported the roof blocks of the central chapel. The perimeter walls were built of mud bricks. On the interior, these walls were faced with limestone slabs, a small number of which have remained in situ. The revetment of the north and south wall of the courtyard still included square bases upon which pilasters once stood. Two broken yet joining fragments of one pilaster, recovered during excavation, were physically joined and re-erected upon the north-east base. The rejoined fragments allow us to estimate the pilaster’s original height at 1.85 m (pilaster + base). The peristyle courtyard contained a total of 12 columns, none of them fully preserved. All column bases are extant and half of them still support the remains of column drums. The two columns on the east side, opposite the entrance doorway, are the best preserved, still standing to a height of c. 1.5 m. Another near-complete specimen (1.84 m high), still retaining part of its capital, was found lying in a sand deposit in the north-east corner of the tomb. This column may have stood on one of the column bases forming the north row, which is where it was restored at the end of the 2023 season. The information gleaned from the reconstructed column and pilaster suggests that the tomb’s mud-brick walls were originally just under two metres in height. The floor of Panehsy’s tomb features a well-preserved limestone paving throughout, with some sections in the chapel areas no longer present, likely removed at some point (see Fig. 10, below). The interior walls marking the chapel area were constructed as hollow skin walls of limestone with a stone and mud-brick rubble fill.

The three chapels on the west end of the tomb’s superstructure were heavily damaged by digging activities. The earliest such activities may date between the Pharaonic and the Late Antique period, when various pavement stones and undecorated wall revetment blocks were removed and perhaps reused as building material elsewhere. The southwest chapel had been damaged to the greatest extent, its paving stones and part of the mud-brick south wall being now missing. Continued excavation in this area may uncover the lower courses of the wall’s mud-brick foundation below pavement level.

2.2.3 The stela in the southwest chapel

148 The side chapels at the west end of the tomb superstructure each held a stela placed against the west wall. The stela of the southwest chapel was found lying face down in the sand. It is cut from a single block of limestone and its back side is roughly dressed. The back’s uneven surface was meant to maximise adhesion to the mud-brick wall, where a mixture of limestone flakes, pieces of mud brick and plaster served as an adhesive that filled the space between the wall and the stela. A pinkish lime mortar was applied at the joint between the base of the stela and the surrounding floor blocks, remnants of which remain as setting lines on the paving stones and mark the stela’s original placement.

In its present state, the near-complete stela is 110 cm high, 95 cm wide and 12 cm thick (Fig. 9). It is estimated that only its upper edge is broken off. The rectangular stela24 sits on a low base and is enclosed by a narrow, raised frame slightly tapering towards the top. The recessed central area of the stela is divided into two superimposed registers with scenes carved in shallow sunk relief.

The scene in the upper register depicts a male individual standing, facing right, raising both hands in a gesture of adoration before the goddess Hathor, who is depicted as a cow standing on a raised dais crowned with a cavetto cornice and set in a shrine, facing left. Six framed columns of hieroglyphic text incised in the space between the cow’s back and the shrine’s roof identify Hathor and list various of her epithets. The inscription set in four framed columns above the male individual, Panehsy, is largely lost. A high offering stand supporting a nemset jar separates Panehsy and Hathor.

In the lower register, Panehsy and his wife Baia sit on low-backed, lion-legged chairs in front of an offering table.25 In front of them, to the right, an officiant named Piay pours a libation of water from a hes vase. The three individuals are identified by framed texts arranged in columns.

The texts carved on the stela contain no date. Still, it is possible to propose a date on stylistic grounds. The proportions of the human body conform to those typically employed in the Nineteenth Dynasty. These are markedly different from those attested in late Eighteenth Dynasty tombs such as that of Panehsy’s neighbour, Maya,26 who built his tomb during a period spanning from the reign of Tutankhamun to Year 9 of Horemheb.27 The proportions of Panehsy compare much better to those of Tia,28 who probably started building his tomb near the end of the second decade of Ramesses II, between Years 16 and 24.29 Still, Tia features the elongated legs characteristic of the Ramesside period, half a square longer than Panehsy’s. A preliminary comparison with Tia’s tomb thus suggests that Panehsy’s reliefs should be dated before Tia’s, i.e. before the second decade of Ramesses II. This date is consistent with that suggested for the architecture, tomb placement, and ceramics (as outlined in Section 2.2.1, above), and suggests the tomb was built and decorated between Year 9 of Horemheb (the year Maya died offers a terminus a quo) and Year 16 of Ramesses II (the making of Tia’s tomb offers a terminus ad quem).

2.2.4 The wall reliefs of the central chapel

(Nico Staring)

149-151 The central chapel in the west end of the tomb’s superstructure consists of a single room (Fig. 10). The mud-brick wall that forms the western perimeter of the tomb is preserved to a maximum height of 120 cm. Only the lowermost courses of limestone revetment blocks bearing relief decoration are preserved, while the stela set in the west wall is now missing. A fragment (R93) of its lower-right corner was recovered during excavation (Fig. 11) and was restored to its original position at the end of the 2022 season. The fragment preserves a raised jamb with the lower part of two framed columns of text ending with the name Panehsy, as well as part of the recessed central area of the stela depicting two feet of a standing individual carved in sunk relief. The reliefs abutting the stela on both sides of the west wall preserve the feet of the elite male tomb owner, carved in raised relief (Fig. 12). The man wears a long, elaborately pleated garment and sandals, and holds a combination of the so-called was sceptre and the medu or staff-of-office.

The north and south walls of the chapel contain one scene each. Both are executed in raised relief and depict the male tomb owner sitting on a lion-legged chair before an offering table, while various individuals bring offerings. The scene on the north wall depicts two offering bearers leading a fat bull (see Fig. 28b, below).

A preliminary study of the reliefs has identified a number of ancient alterations to the composition of the scenes. One example is observed on the south wall, to the right of the seated tomb owner (Fig. 13). The scene presently depicts four individuals standing before two offering stands. Close scrutiny of the carvings reveals that the man standing closest to the chair’s hind leg was added subsequent to the initial carving. This figure is represented on a smaller scale than the others and wears a distinctly different garment. The technique used to carve the figure also differs from that used for the others, which are sculpted in thick raised relief, a technique whereby the background of the figures is lowered. By contrast, the individual on the left was made by deeply incising the contours of the figure (sinking the figure into the already-lowered stone surface). The internal details were then modelled to give it the visual appearance of raised relief.

Relief decoration outside the western chapels is limited to the west wall of the pillared courtyard, where the section between the central and northwest chapel preserves decoration carved in raised relief. The scene framed by a block frieze depicts two groups of men, each engaged in the slaughtering of a bull. The south doorjamb of the entrance to the northwest chapel was inscribed with three framed columns of hieroglyphic text carved in raised relief (Fig. 14). Each text column ends with the name of Panehsy.

2.2.5 Substructure and burial chambers

(Nico Staring)

The shaft of Panehsy’s tomb (context 459) is situated in the peristyle courtyard of the tomb. The mouth of the shaft is positioned slightly off-centre relative to the central axis, and features a sunken ledge (c. 30 cm) upon which the limestone cover slabs rested (Fig. 15). The two slabs that were found in situ covered the south part of the shaft. These needed to be removed in order to safely excavate the shaft. The burial shaft is rectangular and measures 165 cm from north to south and 98 cm from east to west. Its upper part consists of seven courses of limestone masonry, 1.7 m deep. Remarkably, the shaft descends to a depth of 10.20 m, making it one of the deepest New Kingdom burial shafts in the Leiden-Turin concession area (see Fig. 32, below).30

Two subterranean chambers branch off from the shaft’s southern wall. Chamber A (context 471), the uppermost one, lies at a depth of 5.9 m. It consists of a square room measuring about 4 m from north to south and 2.5 m from east to west.31 The doorway to this room is 2.07 m high. The room was almost completely filled with sand. A later shaft had broken into the chamber’s southeast corner (see Section 2.2.6).

About 93 cm below the floor of the upper chamber, another doorway opens into a lower room, Chamber B (context 475). The floor level of Chamber B lies flush with the bottom of the burial shaft at a depth of 10.20 m,32 measures about 3.54 m from north to south and 3.33 m from east to west, and reaches a maximum ceiling height of 1.55 m. A second shaft (context 476) descends from the floor in its southeast corner (Fig. 16).

152 A low drystone wall made of limestone blocks stood on the north and west side of the mouth of the shaft (context 478). It was presumably built by previous excavators of the underground complex, who emptied the second shaft (context 476) and deposited all the sand and rubble (context 479) in Chamber B. The wall prevented the accumulation of loose sand and rubble from sliding back into the shaft while it was being emptied. Three blocks used in its construction were fragments of the second shaft’s original cover slabs. The sand deposited behind the drystone wall yielded four fragments of a calcite jar (F744A–D), one of which bore the incised hieroglyphic inscription “high priest”.

One of the cover slabs (126 × 28 × 8 cm) of shaft 476 was found in situ, lying across the mouth. It must have been left there intentionally by those who emptied the shaft. It would have eased access to the burial chamber and the hauling of material from below. We decided to remove the slab for safety reasons and replace it with a sturdier wooden beam to facilitate work in the 5.40 m deep shaft.

One more room, Chamber C (context 483), was accessed from the south wall of shaft 476. Its doorway is 95 cm high and 87 cm wide. The room measures 2.90 m from north to south and 2.5 m from east to west, and its maximum height is about 1.2 m. The location of this burial chamber is noteworthy, because it does not lie below the central chapel of the tomb of Panehsy, as one would expect, but exactly below the northwest chapel of the neighbouring tomb of Maya. When found, the burial chamber was largely filled with sand and rubble, leaving a space of no more than 40 cm to the ceiling. The deposits were covered by chunks of rock that had broken off from the ceiling. The southern part of the room contained irregularly shaped limestone blocks (context 485). Three stone fragments joined and were identified as a cover slab of shaft 476. This slab (R134) had been sawn off a larger block that was previously used in a structure of Old Kingdom date. One of the slab’s long sides bears traces of raised relief (Fig. 17). The stones in the south part of Chamber C were mixed with quantities of potsherds and skeletal material. 153 A deposit of clean and loose yellowish sand (context 484) in the northeast part of Chamber C, closest to the entrance, had slid into the chamber from the shaft, and lay on top of a greyish-brown sand deposit (context 482) that covered the rock floor of the chamber. Context 482 held two calcite jar fragments. One (F751) bears a column of hieroglyphic text giving the name of one of the Sons of Horus, Imsety, and a line of text with the title “high priest of Hathor, lady of the sycamore”. Organic material such as wood has barely been preserved in the damp conditions and high temperatures at this depth. Only one small fragment of a wooden object (the foot and shaft of a standard?) could be recovered (F752). The deposit also yielded beads, pottery sherds and skeletal remains. A first assessment of Chamber C suggests that its builders had left it unfinished. This interpretation is mainly based on the fact that the levelling of the chamber’s floor was clearly halted at one point in time (Fig. 18).33 Despite its unfinished state, the archaeological evidence strongly suggests that this chamber received at least one or perhaps more burials in the Ramesside period, as the ceramic evidence is rather homogenously datable to that time (see Section 5.2.1).

The uppermost room, Chamber A (context 471), of Panehsy’s underground complex was excavated during the 2023 season. When found, the space was almost completely filled with sand that had entered from the main shaft. Another sand cone had formed in the chamber in the opposite southeast corner, where a later shaft (dating to sometime after the New Kingdom) had broken into its ceiling and south wall (see Section 2.2.6). Those who had excavated the underground structure of Panehsy before the present expedition (probably in the nineteenth century CE) had deposited large blocks of limestone (context 612) on the threshold of the entrance to Chamber A, preventing sand from shifting into the main shaft (context 459). One of the blocks used as part of the threshold construction could be identified as a papyrus column fragment, which most likely came from the columned courtyard of Panehsy’s tomb superstructure. The deposit of clean sand (context 610) that had entered Chamber A from the main shaft covered another c. 40 cm thick sand deposit that sat on the chamber’s rock floor. The southern half of the chamber yielded a more complex stratigraphy. There, the fill of sand that had entered the space from the breakthrough caused by shaft 146 (context 608) covered a layer of red and yellow coloured tafla chunks that had broken off from the ceiling of Chamber A. The tafla layer covered a dark-brown deposit of decomposed organic material filled with tafla chips and large quantities of human bone material, large numbers of rodent bones, and a few ceramics (context 623). The deposit yielded assorted funerary objects such as wooden pegs (probably used in coffins), the limestone lid of a canopic jar and fragments of calcite canopic jars. Despite the large quantities of human bone, it was impossible to distinguish individual burials, because it was thoroughly mixed. This raises the question of whether the burials had originally been in Chamber A or the material had been brought from elsewhere (perhaps from further down in the underground complex of Panehsy, or from the adjoining communal burial space entered from the later shaft 146) and thrown into this chamber. Further study of the excavated material and continued excavation of the adjoining communal burial space is required to offer a more definite answer.

At present, the calcite jar fragments found in Chamber A (context 623: F1009, F1010, F1013) could be singled out, as they formed part of one burial 154 assemblage together with fragments found in Chambers B (F744A–D, F745, F746) and C (F744E, F750, F751). The fragments formed part of three jars representing Imsety (F751), Hapy (F1009) and Qebehsenuef (F1013). Specimen F1009 also records the full title fragmentarily preserved on F744B and F751, and gives the name of the owner: “high priest of Hathor, Lady of the [Southern] Sycamore, Paynedjem”.34 This individual has not been previously identified in other sources, and the title remains unattested in Memphis during the New Kingdom.35 The burial equipment points to continued use of the underground spaces of Panehsy’s tomb during the later Ramesside period. However, due to the dispersed nature of the fragments, at present it is unclear where Paynedjem’s vessels were originally deposited.

2.2.6 Breakthrough to a communal burial complex, post-New Kingdom

(Nico Staring)

A later burial shaft (context 146) that had broken into the southeast corner of Panehsy’s underground Chamber A led the expedition to another burial space. The mouth of shaft 146 had already been documented in 2017. It was situated aboveground in the space between the north wall of the northwest chapel of Maya and the south wall of Panehsy.36 The preexisting tomb walls served as the south and north wall of the new shaft, while its east and west walls were constructed of a single row of mud bricks. The shaft measures 120 × 100 cm and its mouth is situated c. 80 cm above the floor level of Panehsy’s columned courtyard. The uppermost 3 m consist of mud-brick masonry that bridges the distance to the bedrock (see Fig. 32, below).37 The shaft was filled with loose sand containing small quantities of pottery sherds of mixed date (New Kingdom to Late Antique period) and small numbers of bone fragments. At a depth of 6.60 m, the north wall of shaft 146 breaks into the ceiling and south wall of Panehsy’s Chamber A, creating a doorway c. 2 m high and 1 m wide (Fig. 19).

At the same level as the breakthrough, the east wall of shaft 146 gives access to a communal burial complex of Late Period or Ptolemaic date (context 613) (Fig. 20).38 This complex consists of a rectangular room measuring c. 4.3 m (east–west) × 2.8 m (north–south). The room’s long sides provide access to a total of four niches: two on the north side (context 614–615) and two on the south side (context 616–617). Each niche is c. 70 cm high, 1.4 m wide, and 2.2 m deep. The burial complex was surveyed and photographically documented at the close of the 2023 season. Further archaeological investigation has been postponed until the next field season.

2.3 The tomb chapel of Yuyu (context 545)

(Nico Staring and Lara Weiss)

155-156 In squares X83–84, east of the Late Antique structures described in Section 2.1, were found the remains of a small tomb chapel of New Kingdom date (context 545). The inscriptions of the wall reliefs identify its erstwhile owner as the “maker of gold foil, Yuyu”, who probably lived and died during the reign of Ramesses II.

2.3.1 Archaeological report

(Nico Staring)

At the start of the 2023 field season, the deposits covering the chapel of Yuyu were c. 2 m thick (Fig. 21).39 Since the area to the south had already been excavated during previous field seasons, the standing south section of square X84 offered a clear stratigraphic image. It allowed for a provisional reconstruction of the site’s formation processes following the chapel’s building and initial use. The upper sand layer (context 486) was created in quite recent times, most likely in the 1980s, when material excavated from the tomb of Maya was deposited in this area. It covered a thick layer of clean windblown sand that displayed a clear stratification of alternating fine and coarser sand layers (contexts 589, 591, 593). At a distance of c. 1 m east of the chapel, the clean sand deposit covered the previously described compact Ramesside layer (context 303) composed of a matrix of tafla densely filled with pottery sherds (see Section 2.1, above). The thick, homogeneous sand deposit attests to a prolonged period of inactivity in this area. The deepest layers of windblown sand (context 593) formed a concavity, indicating that sand had filled a depression east of chapel 545. Mud lenses (context 591) observed in the depression indicate that water accumulated there following periods of rain (Fig. 22). The depression was created when the chapel’s burial shaft (context 607) was last emptied – possibly during the nineteenth century CE – prior to the current excavation. The material excavated from the shaft was deposited all around the shaft: inside the chapel (context 594) as well as outside it to the east and north (context 604). The absence of a drystone wall around the shaft is remarkable, because such walls are a common feature in the Leiden-Turin concession area. These were built by past excavators to keep loose sand from sliding into the emptied shaft (compare Fig. 3, above). The fact that the previous excavators felt no need to build such a structure suggests that at the time the rim of the shaft was situated close to the desert surface.

The aboveground structure of Yuyu’s chapel contains a minimum of two spaces (Fig. 23).40 The southern room measures c. 1 m north–south and 1.15 m east–west. The mud-brick south wall (context 546) and west wall (context 598) are bonded, whereas the wall bearing relief decoration on its south face (595) is not bonded to the structure’s west wall. The south room and the area to the east have a limestone pavement, which lies flush with the rim of the tomb shaft (1.7 m × 0.7 m). The stone pavement was found covered by the compact Ramesside tafla layer (context 303) that connects the various New Kingdom chapels in this part of the cemetery. The same tafla layer had also accumulated all around the exterior of the chapel, thereby enveloping its mud-brick walls.41

The chapel’s floor blocks supported the wall revetment, the door jambs, and a stela on its west side. Discolouration on the floor in combination with the preserved plaster setting lines point to the former presence of the said architectural elements – the door jambs and the stela. The former have been identified in the collection of the Musée de Picardie in Amiens, France.42 The jamb with inv. no. M.P. 88.3.4.2 (h: 97 cm) stood on the north side and inv. no. M.P. 88.3.4.1 (h: 87 cm) on the south side.

2.3.2.1 North wall

The chapel’s north wall is built of two limestone blocks, and the scenes are arranged in three registers, each c. 30 cm high (Fig. 24). The joint between the two blocks was concealed with a pinkish gypsum plaster, and various figures depicted in the middle register were subsequently sculpted in this same plaster.

The upper register of the north wall depicts the Ritual of Opening the Mouth. It is performed on the mummiform representation of presumably the deceased tomb owner Yuyu, held upright by an unnamed male with shaven head, positioned in front of a representation of the tomb chapel topped by 157 a pyramidion. The short text carved above the individual standing closest to Yuyu, performing the Ritual of Opening the Mouth, identifies him as the lector priest Ptahmay. The son of Yuyu depicted in the middle register of this north wall is also named Ptahmay. It seems likely therefore that the officiant performing the ritual should likewise be identified as Yuyu’s son. Ptahmay holds a spoutless nemset jar from which he pours a libation of water. The space between Yuyu and Ptahmay is filled with the depictions of assorted food offerings and implements used during the Ritual. The right-hand side of the scene depicts a group of wailing female individuals in a range of different poses.

The middle register depicts a scene of the funeral procession. At the centre of the image is the processional bark upon which the enshrined mummiform body of the deceased is placed.43 It is supported by carrying poles shouldered by four groups of shaven-headed men. The first group is composed of four overlapping individuals, the second of six individuals, and the third and fourth of four each. Thus, each pole is supported by nine men and a total of eighteen men carry the bark – an exceptionally large number for a private funeral. A male and a female are depicted walking besides the naos-shaped shrine. The female moves her hands above her head to express her grief. A hieroglyphic text carved in 158 front of her identifies her as Nefertari, Yuyu’s mother. The male individual is identified as “his beloved son, Ptahmay”.44 The funerary bark shouldered by priests is preceded by a larger-scale male individual whose upper body is turned backwards to face the bark and burn incense in a long-armed censer. The hieroglyphic text carved above his image identifies him as “his son Ptahmay, true of voice”. The funerary procession is led by a group of four long-horned bulls guided by a male individual holding a lettuce in his left hand. The hieroglyphic text carved above the bulls probably contains the words of a song or utterance befitting the occasion: “to the West, to the West, O praised one, to the West”. The party walking behind the funeral bark includes a large-sized representation of a woman named Nihay, who also appears on the opposite south wall. Nihay is followed by three male individuals, all represented at a slightly smaller scale. The hieroglyphic text carved above their images reads “chief of makers of gold foil, Neferrenpet”.45 It is unclear who the individual thus identified is, though one would expect him to be the first in the line. He might be another son of Yuyu or a member of his socio-professional network.

The lower register of the north wall depicts an offering table scene. This time, Yuyu acts on behalf of his (deceased) parents. They are both seated on lion-legged chairs on the far-left side of the register. The hieroglyphic inscriptions set in framed columns identify the couple as “the Osiris, chief of goldworkers of the double treasury of the king l.p.h., Ptah-…,46 true of voice”, and “his spouse Nefertari, true of voice in the necropolis (?)”.47 A monkey is tied to Nefertari’s chair. A male officiant standing in front of the offering table pours a libation of water from a spouted hes vase. The unframed column of text above the offering table describes the ritual as “performing incense and libation”, while the officiant is identified as “the Osiris, maker of gold foil, Yuyu”. The right-hand side of the scene depicts a group of four individuals bringing assorted offerings. Framed columns of hieroglyphic text identify the four as children of Yuyu. The first male is identified as “his son, maker of fine gold (?),48 Hery, true of voice”; the second as “his son, Ptahmay, true of voice”; the first female as “his sister, Tuty”, and the second female, depicted at a slightly smaller scale, as “Maya, true of voice in peace forever, repeating life”.

2.3.2.2 South wall

The south wall of Yuyu’s tomb chapel is made of two limestone blocks decorated with scenes covering three registers (Fig. 25). The scenes depict motifs of the tomb owner and his retinue offering to various deities.

The scene in the upper register is largely damaged. The remains in the lower part of the scene allow for a partial reconstruction. A row of seven individuals approach a deity standing upon a narrow dais shaped as the hieroglyphic sign mꜣꜥ. In light of the Memphite setting and considering the deities depicted in the registers below (i.e. two deities closely associated with the local Memphite necropolis), it is highly likely the scene relates to Ptah, the city god of Memphis and patron deity of artists.

The middle register depicts Yuyu and his retinue offering a gazelle (oryx) before the henu bark of the god Sokar-Osiris in the shetyt shrine.49 The iconography of the bark is characteristic of New Kingdom depictions.50 Various elements of Sokar’s sanctuary, including the pedestal, sledge, frame and part of the shrine retain their yellow pigment. Six individuals approach the bark from the left: four females and two males. Yuyu is positioned at the head of the row of people, killing the gazelle placed upon a high table. The hieroglyphic text carved above the gazelle reads: “the other Osiris who is in the Shetyt”. The female behind Yuyu is identified as “the singer of Amun, Nihay, true of voice”. She is probably Yuyu’s spouse. Nihay is followed by a male individual with shaven head and wearing a plain sash kilt. He is identified as “Ptahmay, true of voice”, undoubtedly Yuyu’s son, who is also depicted on the opposite north wall. The female behind him is “his sister, Maiay”, i.e. the spouse of Ptahmay, son of Yuyu. The female next in line is designated as “his daughter Nefertari, true of voice”, i.e. the daughter of Ptahmay and Maiay. The last individual in the row is a little girl with shaved head. She raises her left hand to grasp Nefertari’s lower arm while she holds a flowering papyrus stalk in her right hand clutched to her chest. The framed column of hieroglyphic text incised above her reads: “Mutnofret, true of voice”.

The lower register depicts an offering scene before the Hathor cow emerging from the mountains, who is described as: “Hathor, Lady of the Southern 159 Sycamore, Lady of the Desert(-necropolis)”.51 The yellow-painted Hathor cow bears the sun disk between her horns and wears a menat necklace with a heavy counterbalance around her neck resting on the withers. The cow stands in a papyrus thicket, with one stalk bent towards the cow’s foreleg. The back part of its body is hidden from view by a black-dotted, red-coloured undulating escarpment. Yuyu censes and libates the offering table before Hathor. Five more individuals are depicted standing behind Yuyu: one male and four females. The male individual standing closest to Yuyu is named “scribe of the great (?),52 Amenemope”. It is unclear what the relationship between Yuyu and Amenemope might have been. All four females that complete the row of offering bearers are named in short, framed columns of text. Their names and affiliations are, from right to left: “Ini”;53 “Pay”;54 “his daughter Nefertari”;55 and “his daughter Meretptah”. The nature of the relationship of Ini and Pay to Yuyu and Amenemope is unclear, and it is equally unknown who the parents of Nefertari and Meretptah were. Nefertari might be the same individual as the lady depicted and named in the middle register (second person to the left).

5.1 The 2022 season

(Valentina Gasperini)

The most significant contexts in the subterranean complex of the tomb of Panehsy are the layers excavated in Chamber C (contexts 482–485), which are richer in ceramic materials than the other substructures of the complex. 95% of materials are datable to the Ramesside Period. A small percentage of Late Period and Late Antique ceramics is also identified in these contexts: two poorly preserved body sherds belonging to Late Roman 7 amphorae shoulders were found in context 482; and five poorly preserved body sherds belonging to Late Roman 1 amphorae along with one body sherd of a Late Period torch were retrieved from context 484. These materials are evidence of secondary burials in the subterranean complex.

Several ceramic fragments point to a first usage of the tomb in the early Nineteenth Dynasty. For example, context 482 in Chamber C generated an almost complete profile (made of several joining sherds) of a Canaanite jar (C1401, Fig. 40) manufactured from a Levantine clay.59 Canaanite jars of this type and fabric were typically commercialised in the early-Ramesside phase and are abundantly found across Egypt and in Nubia.60 Along with this Canaanite jar (Fig. 40), a handle attached to the shoulder of a Marl D amphora (C1403, Fig. 41) was excavated from this layer, with a morphology that is very consistent with a late Eighteenth Dynasty/early Ramesside production.61 Interestingly, this item was also reused as a scraper, probably in relation to ancient looting activities in the tomb. Six other body sherds from the same contexts were similarly reused for this purpose.

168 A further indication of an early Ramesside phase of the funerary complex is the presence of several small dishes characterised by a string-cut base. Some have an uncoated surface and others have a layer of red slip applied to the internal surface only (external surface uncoated), which are typical of the Nineteenth Dynasty ceramic repertoire, and must have been used as offering dishes (e.g., C1374, Fig. 42).62 These types of dishes also occur abundantly in the layer immediately above the floor of the peristyle courtyard (context 303), in which the opening of the shaft of the tomb of Panehsy was found.

However, the preliminary analysis of the ceramics from the subterranean complex seems to show a usage spanning the whole Ramesside period, most likely with the last Ramesside interments dating to sometime in the Twentieth Dynasty. Examples of Late Ramesside ceramics from subterranean parts of the tomb are an almost complete profile of a bag-shaped amphora made from mixed clay, typical of the Twentieth Dynasty63 (C1402; Fig. 43), and at least two globular jars also manufactured from mixed clay and dated again to the late Ramesside phase (C1404, Fig. 44).64 Late Ramesside ceramics were also recovered from a layer directly overlying the floor of the peristyle courtyard (context 303), showing the deposition of offerings for burials well into the Twentieth Dynasty. Particularly significant is bowl C1352 (Fig. 45), characterised by a surface treatment attested only during the Twentieth Dynasty,65 with a cream slip all over the surface and a red slip band applied to the rim only. Other Late Ramesside materials are represented by the rim of a globular jar of the aforementioned type.

5.2 The 2023 season

(Valentina Gasperini)

5.2.3 Late Antique layers

The upper levels of the area to the north-east of the tomb of Panehsy contained Late Antique installations and layers, the most significant of which are a sub-circular mud-brick installation (context 509), a mud-brick floor surface (context 517), a mud-brick wall (context 518), and a stone-paved floor (context 524). As expected, initial analysis shows a good amount of locally produced amphorae Late Roman 7 (LR7) and imported amphorae Late Roman 1 (LR1) dating to the fifth/seventh century CE. However, a type of Late Antique amphora produced in Egypt and made from Nile silt, consistent with type AE3T-3.2 var B,79 was identified for the first time at the site of the Leiden-Turin expedition.80 The finds were consistent with those from contemporary upper layers.81 Aswan ware and body sherds of other imported amphorae (mainly identified as made from “Fabric P50” characterised by a fine texture and a thick pale firing surface) were well represented in these contexts too. A small percentage of diagnostic fragments are cooking wares with the usual pronounced inner seat lid and ribbing to the exterior, in addition to utilitarian wares such as bowls and dishes. Fine wares were represented by locally produced bowls imitating the African sigillata, as suggested by their morphology, along with the thick, well burnished red slip applied on both surfaces.

171 Although only a small number of ceramic fragments was recovered from a very loose dark grey deposit (context 508) inside mud-brick structure 383, this nonetheless proved particularly significant for our understanding of the date of the oval construction/installation (context 509). The discovery of a rim sherd belonging to a large Nile silt bowl (C1508, Fig. 46), its exterior decorated with wavy black painted lines and covered by a motif of solid white dots, is indicative of a seventh century CE chronology82 and constituted a terminus post quem for the construction of the installation. This date is consistent with the presence of body sherds of LR7 amphorae with pronounced shoulder carination. Indeed, this specific feature is typical of the last phases of production of LR7 amphorae.

Particularly interesting is the discovery of a handle of LR7 (C1504, Fig. 47) characterised by the presence of a small piece of textile still adhering to the neck and handle attachment. The textile most probably was originally part of the sealing of the amphora. The fabric was probably placed between a clay stopper and the opening of the amphora to protect its content from the dry clay of the stopper. A string was tied just underneath the rim and around the handle attachment to seal and secure the stopper. Indeed, four entwined string fragments were found still around the handle attachment and above the fabric band (see C1504, Fig. 47).

Among the Late Antique contexts investigated in the 2023 season, an interesting feature is a drainage system (context 571), formed by a series of locally produced amphorae deliberately aligned to create a pipeline (Fig. 6).83 At least three amphorae (C1556; C1557; C1558, Figs. 48–50) are manufactured from Nile silt and belong to type AE3T 3.2 var B, produced in Egypt between the first half of the seventh to the middle eighth century CE.84 This date fits perfectly with what was observed in relation to the construction of the oval installation (context 509), suggesting that these two structures were probably contemporaneous.

5.3 Pottery conservation

(Alice Salvador)

172 Besides the analysis of the ceramic materials, the excavated pottery was thoroughly documented. This involved not only the technical archaeological drawing of the finds, but also the reconstruction of vessels, which in situ already preserved a large number of joining sherds. In the 2022 season, it was possible to reconstruct the complete profile and part of the original shape of the Canaanite jar (C1401, Fig. 40), and the nearly complete profile of a bag-shaped amphora (C1402, Fig. 43). In the 2023 season, the vessels reconstructed were: the jar with small pierced vertical handles and shallow ribbing 173 on its globular body (C1546, Fig. 53); the large storage container (C1550, Fig. 52); and the large storage jar with ribbing on its body (C1554, Fig. 54). The reconstruction of these five vessels provided detailed information about their dimensions, shape, and capacity. Despite the presence of many joining sherds, it was not possible to reconstruct further than the rim and neck of the three amphorae (C1556, C1557, C1558, Figs. 48–50). The state of preservation of the ceramic was too flaky to proceed with the reconstruction without a proper consolidation of the fragments. The reconstruction of another four vessels (C1458, C1562, C1563, C1564) will be continued in the next season.

6.1 Skeletal remains from the 2017, 2018 and 2019 seasons

Most of the loose bone material that was excavated in 2019 was studied during the same season and the preliminary report of the activities of that year88 is based on the 3121 bones that had been processed up until then. Due to time constraints, not all material could be processed during the initial analysis. An additional 967 individual bones from the 2019 season have now been examined, and updated conclusions regarding the full collection of 4,088 loose bones recovered that season are presented here.

The skeletal remains included 75 animal bones and 4013 human bones. 419 of these human bones could not be attributed to a specific archaeological context and are therefore classified as “out of context”. This leaves us with 3594 bones that can be used to calculate the MNI (minimum number of individuals). In addition to the 31 contexts with human bone material that were already mentioned in the 2019 report, there is a context that is probably an embalmer’s cache (context 356) with no more than four skeletal fragments. This means that out of the 59 contexts discovered during the 2019 season, 32 contained human remains. A dump deposit from previous excavations (context 332) contained the most fragments – 899 in total, as opposed to the 417 that were mentioned in the preliminary report of 2019. The remaining skeletal remains were recounted and amount to 338 fragments in context 339, 206 fragments in context 328, 99 fragments in context 345 and 84 fragments in context 351. The calculated MNI for subadults stays the same (five, attested in five subadult femora), while the adult MNI increases from 21 to 23 due to the presence of 23 right adult calcanei. This brings the total MNI for the 2019 material to 28 individuals.

Other materials studied include the human remains excavated in the 2017, 2018 and 2019 seasons in several contexts in the area north of the tomb of Maya. These are six individual burials (contexts 148, 162, 210, 261, 267 and 324), of which three belonged to adult individuals (contexts 148, 162 and 261). The three subadult individuals were all younger than 5 years of age. The adult individual from context 148 was found in 2017 between the north wall of Maya and a retaining wall (context 116)89 and did not represent a complete burial; besides numerous commingled remains, only 16 bones of the upper body were found in anatomical position. These were estimated to belong to a probable male adult of about 56.2 ± 8.5 years of age. The remains of the individual from context 162, found in 2017,90 consisted solely of the lower body with fair preservation. No sex or age estimation other than “adult” could be established. In contexts 210, 261 and 267, three individuals were recovered in 2018. The individual in square W83 (context 210) was initially not recognised as a burial, and was consequently not documented as such in the field. Later analysis indicated that the bones belonged to the upper body of a perinate individual. The individual from context 26191 was represented by a poorly preserved and fragmented lower skeleton and could therefore only be identified as an adult individual of indeterminate sex. The individual from context 26792 and from context 324 were both subadults. The former was estimated to be between 5 and 6 years of age, based on long bone metrics. The remains were quite fragmentary, and preservation was fair. The remains of the latter individual were excavated in 2019, but not recognised as a burial until 2022, when textile restorer Valentina Turina found them wrapped inside a roll of textile (Fig. 55). The remains, nine perinate foot bones, were then recovered by biological anthropologist Ali Jelene Scheers.

6.2 Skeletal remains from the 2022 and 2023 seasons

The skeletal remains excavated during the 2022 and 2023 seasons consist of an individual burial and commingled material. The commingled material found both in and outside the tomb of Panehsy originates from 68 different contexts. These contexts yielded a total of 6922 individual bones 175 of which 1379 were unidentifiable fragments, 165 were not human, and 50 were found out of context. This leaves us with 5328 individual bones that establish an MNI of 65 individuals for all contexts excavated in 2022 and 2023 combined. This group contained 44 adults based on 44 proximal right femora, and 21 subadults based on 21 unfused and fusing proximal left femora. As the subterranean part of the tomb of Panehsy is a relatively closed context, we can establish an MNI for those that were likely buried there. Of the 6922 individual bones found in the 2022 and 2023 seasons, 2678 bones were found in the burial chamber and shafts of the tomb of Panehsy.93 Of these 2678 individual bones, 559 were unidentifiable fragments, 81 were not human, and 49 were found out of context. From the 1989 remaining bones, an MNI of 31 individuals could be established, consisting of 23 adults based on 23 distal right humeri, and 8 subadults based on 8 unfused proximal left femora. It is more than likely that some of the skeletal remains found in the courtyard and chapels of the tomb also belong to individuals who were originally buried in the burial chambers. Contexts 424 and 430 from the floor of the central chapel of the tomb of Panehsy yielded a rather large concentration of commingled skeletal material, consisting of 1744 individual bones. Eight were animal bones and 303 were unrecognizable fragments, leaving 1433 individual bones to establish an MNI for context 424 and 430 of 18 individuals. This includes 10 adults based on 10 proximal left femora as well as 10 distal right femora, and 8 subadults based on 8 fusing and unfused proximal left femora. Contexts 424 and 430 contained many smaller human bones, such as carpals and phalanges. Their presence indicates that movement of the remains found in the central chapel was limited across different phases: from the disturbance of the primary burial, through the deposition of the bones in the central chapel, to the current excavation. For example, a cranium found in the north corner of the central chapel had preserved its fragile facial bones, which could be an indicator that any looting activities were limited in their intensity and frequency. As none of the human remains in the central chapel were found in their correct anatomical position, the remains must have been disturbed after decomposition of the connective soft tissues. It is likely that the two contexts are a mix of both primary burials within the central chapel as well as material from the subterranean complex of the tomb that was deposited in the chapel during looting activities. Due to the commingled nature of the material, it is not possible to distinguish between primary burials from the chapels and material from the subterranean complex. The southwestern chapel (737 individual bones from context 425) and northwestern chapel (67 individual bones from context 429 and 455) contained fewer bones than the central chapel. The deposit from the southwestern chapel was heavily disturbed. The sand deposit from the northwestern chapel contained mainly subadult bones, which could possibly pertain to a single individual given that most bones belonged to a subadult between the age of 7 and 10, as suggested by dental erupture, long bone length, and fusion. As in the central chapel, none of the remains were found articulated.

In addition to the commingled bone material, one burial was excavated in context 562 (Fig. 56), associated with a cut (context 530) and a fill (context 531) that was tentatively dated to the Late Ramesside or Third Intermediate Period. While these skeletal remains have not been analysed yet, some information regarding the burial can be presented here. The individual, a subadult, was buried in a pit of 70 cm deep inside a wooden trapezoid coffin of 180 cm long and 60 cm wide at the shoulder, which would have been large enough to fit an adult. Long bone 176 measurements of the subadult made in situ suggest a tentative age of c. 5-7 years.94

The coffin was poorly preserved but small remaining pieces of the coffin lid with black, white, and red paint indicate that the lid was decorated. One of the larger fragments was located above the right shoulder and upper arm and showed a thin red line between a possible black wig and a decorative white with red crosshatched pattern below said wig (Fig. 57). Between the underside of the coffin and the skeletal material, we encountered the remains of a reed mat placed over a piece of fabric. The individual may have been entirely wrapped in this mat. The lower legs were wrapped in red textile with darker reddish-brown bands on top of the red textile, forming a crosshatch pattern (Fig. 58). Traces of heavily disintegrated fabric were found along the right shoulder and arm.

The burial had been disturbed by two distinct cuts, which were not assigned individual context numbers. These cuts are only visible in the stratigraphy of the burial and not in the upper layers, which suggests that the disturbances are contemporaneous with the burial. The first cut is located on the southern side of the pit at the height of the right hand and right upper leg. The right ulna is broken off medially post-mortem and the broken distal diaphysis, epiphysis and entire right hand are absent. The second cut is on the western side of the burial pit at the location of the skull. The skull is absent, but fragments of cranial bones and hand bones were found in the deposit overlying this cut. These bones originate from an individual of a similar age as that found in the burial and may belong to the same individual. There were commingled hand bones and 177 cranial fragments in the fill overlying the western cut, while the fill of the southern cut contained only sand. Therefore, we currently believe that the cut on the southern side was made prior to the cut on the western side.

6.3 Inventory

In addition to processing previously unstudied material, an inventory was compiled of boxes containing material that had previously been analysed. These remains had been separated from their original assemblages by previous researchers, either due to the presence of pathological lesions or for use as comparative material in student training. Since the provenances of these bones were no longer clear and it was uncertain to what extent these bones had been studied and published, an inventory was compiled and compared with previously published skeletal material. This research indicated that most of these skeletal remains have already been published in the volumes dedicated to the tombs of Ptahemwia95 and Meryneith.96 This will aid in the ongoing inventory of the human remains assemblages found by the Leiden-Turin Expedition.

7.1 The 2022 season

Three limestone blocks recovered during excavation are decorated in relief and probably date to the Old Kingdom, suggesting that the tomb of Panehsy was constructed through the reuse and/or replacement of earlier structures. One relief fragment attributed to the Old Kingdom (R89) shows a craftsman holding a tool. Another relief fragment (R116) shows the leg of an ox and the leg of a man in a procession. A slab from the burial chamber of Panehsy’s tomb bears a relief (R134) from an Old Kingdom mastaba with a depiction of men handling birds in captivity (Fig. 17).

A number of finds represent very fragmentary architectural elements from a New Kingdom tomb chapel, perhaps that of Panehsy. They include part of a kheker frieze (R84), a fragment of a cavetto cornice (R90), and fragments of papyriform columns (R91; R99; R103; R104). A fragment of what may be a limestone djed-shaped column (44 × 32 × 18 cm) preserves carving on three sides (R136). It shows depictions of a dignitary in a long, pleated garb who probably represents a tomb owner. The fragmentary hieroglyphic inscription mentions a scribe of the treasury, perhaps in the domain of Amun, a title that is not securely attested for Panehsy (Fig. 59). Fragment R118 is a fragment of a hieroglyphic inscription in sunken relief, which contains a part of the name of Maya and must have come from his tomb.

In addition, several small fragments of finely carved limestone wall decoration carved in sunken relief were recovered, which are attributed to the New Kingdom and could be part of the decorative programme of the tomb chapel of Panehsy. One fragment (R92) depicts a man or deity seated on a throne (Fig. 60); R95 shows the feathers of the body of a falcon; R96, R105 and R106 belong to the same relief, depicting a seated Re-Horakhty with the head of a falcon, wearing a tripartite wig and broad collar; fragment R108 shows a mummiform deity seated on a throne, holding two staffs in clenched fists positioned on the chest.

Most small finds from the excavation of the tomb of Panehsy were fragmentary and date to a range of periods. The disturbed nature of the deposits is illustrated by a fragment of a mud brick with a hieroglyphic seal impression (F563) from the tomb of Maya, found in the debris to the west of the tomb 178 of Panehsy.97 Other New Kingdom material from the deposits in the tomb are a fragment of a finely carved leg in the shape of a lion’s paw for a wooden model chair (F575) and a fragment of small glass amphoriskos (F631) with banded rim and a cylindrical neck, decorated with a festoon pattern in pale blue and grey.98 In several deposits from the superstructure of Panehsy’s tomb, fragmentary shabtis were discovered. Seven fragments (F590, F669, F680, F684, F690, F691, F692) belong to wooden mummiform shabtis decorated in black paint. One shabti (F577) takes the shape of a man wearing a long kilt and was decorated with black, pink and yellow lines. In addition, two Ramesside red ceramic mummiform shabtis (F580 and F597) were recovered, one wearing a duplex wig and holding a hoe in each fist, the other wearing a tripartite wig and holding clenched fists folded across the chest. No inscriptions are preserved on any of these figurines.

Three potsherds (F695, F696, F699), found in sand deposits in the superstructure of the tomb and reused as painters’ palettes for red and blue paint, are of uncertain date.

Numerous weathered fragments of one or more wooden coffins, probably from the Third Intermediate Period or the Late Period, were recovered in a very loose, light brown, sandy deposit in the superstructure of Panehsy’s tomb (context 394). Three fragments (F585, F586, F587) may come from the same coffin, of which the element representing the face (F587) was recovered. It is very weathered but shows traces of a layer of a white wash, on top of which a yellow layer is painted. The hair and the lines of an eye and an eyebrow were painted in black. In two other sand deposits (contexts 419 and 424), a large number of wooden coffin fragments were found. While all fragments are very weathered and tentatively attributed to the Late Period, some showed traces of a white wash and black resin.99 Many fragments of ceramic coffins were excavated and attributed to the late Ramesside Period and the Third Intermediate Period. Fragments F402 and F605 are decorated with a simple wavy pattern. An exceptionally well-preserved fragment of one such coffin takes the form of a face (F637) (Fig. 61). Its features, finely modelled in clay, include a chin with central indentation, lips, philtrum, nostrils, nose, eyebrows and eyes. Above the forehead and at the lateral sides of the faces are traces of the walls connecting the face to the rest of the coffin. There are traces of black pigment around the face at the upper left end and at the eyes, and the forehead has traces of a yellow pigment layer. The rest of the face shows a layer with a white wash. Above the right eyebrow 179 is a curved line with traces of blue pigment, while a line around the face in a darker shade of red may represent a beard.100

A few faience amulets (F671, F672, F673), faience and stone beads (F756) and the upper part of a faience shabti (F665) were found in deposits (contexts 424 and 425) that also contained bones and wooden fragments/ These were located in the central and southern chapels of the tomb of Panehsy and might be dated to the late New Kingdom and to the Late Period. Amulet F671, in particular, is almost complete and depicts the figure of a anthropomorphic Sekhmet with a uraeus on her head and a back pillar, holding wadjet sceptre in her right hand and featuring a transversal passing-through hole at the height of the head.101 This rare representation of a standing Sekhmet – rather than the more typical striding pose with the left leg advanced – has a few parallels from Giza and from Megiddo and might be connected to foreign iconography.

Various finds from the Byzantine and Late Antique periods were encountered during excavation of Panehsy’s superstructure. In square X83, a very small fragment of a limestone Coptic stela was found (R83)102 and a fragment of a mud jar sealing (F582) was found north of the north wall of Panehsy’s tomb, impressed with a circular stamp of a cross (Fig. 62).103 A very eroded coin (F682) is attributed to this timeframe, as is a fragment of a limestone lamp with a handle (F560)104 with an incised, geometric decoration showing a flower with eight petals. Noteworthy is a group of small glass fragments (nine of them registered as F572, F596, F630, F634, F635, F640, F641, F645, F646) of what appear to be drinking cups with a round foot, a short stem and thin walls. None were found intact.

7.2 The 2023 season

The continuation of the excavations in 2023 outside the tomb of Panehsy, mainly around its northeast corner, uncovered a significant amount of material from the Byzantine and Late Antique periods, particularly in contexts 509 and 510. The subcircular mud-brick structure, tentatively interpreted as a small storage facility and later probably a garbage pit, contained no less than fourteen seemingly discarded coins. Several of these coins, made from bronze and copper, are badly eroded and cannot be identified. F824 may depict a bust wearing a diadem on one face. F822 is probably a dodecanummium of Constans II from the middle of the 7th century (Fig. 63). The obverse not well preserved, but the reverse shows a cross on a globe between the letters I and B.105 Coins F869, F873, F874, F918 and F867 (context 510) are probably of the same type. The obverse of the latter preserves a depiction of a standing emperor wearing a chlamys and holding a staurogram-shaped staff and globus. Coin F911 (context 527) also belongs to this type. The three coins from context 501 appear to date from the 8th century. F766 has on one face the Arabic inscription lā ʾilāha ʾilla-llāh,106 and F768 (Fig. 64) depicts on one face a six-pointed star in a crescent.107 Much of the material from the Late Antique occupation layers seems to be related to the domestic sphere and small-scale production. They include a wooden peg (F834) that is nearly 11 cm long108 and an object (F835) with two arms made from a single piece of wood that is probably a key.109 The lower arm has a protrusion at the bottom and there are two dowel holes in the upper arm. A number of objects is connected to weaving and textile production. One fragmentary flax comb of wood (F787) was found in context 508 and is attributed to the Late Antique period.110 From the same context come two fragmentary wooden combs (F947 and F948) that should date to the same period, both with a side of fine teeth and a side of coarse teeth and a centre decorated with incised lines. A very similar fragment (F810) from another context is attributed to the Late Antique period as well.111 Three similar 180 spindle whorls made of wood (F819, F820, F833) were found in the deposit inside the sub-circular mud-brick structure (context 509). A fourth spindle whorl (F 784) was found nearby in a sandy deposit (context 507). They feature a slightly convex top and some are decorated with concentric lines. Their contexts suggest a date in the Late Antique period.112 Perhaps related and from the same deposit in the mud-brick structure (context 509) are two conical ceramic shapes with a central perforation (F832 and F833), tentatively determined as loom weights.113 Three pebbles with smoothened sides (F782, F825, F826) may have also been used as weights. Two circular wooden objects (F808 and F949), both only partly preserved and with an estimated diameter of about 6 cm, were interpreted as spools but could perhaps be wooden stamps of which the design is not discernible.114

Three fragments of shells (F764, F814, F827), perhaps freshwater mussel, were found in different contexts and are attributed to the Late Antique period, in parallel with another fragment that had probably been used as an ink-well and was found in a Late Antique fireplace in the inner courtyard of the tomb of Pay.115 The shell of a sea snail with a conical spire, perhaps Tectus dentatus (F783),116 is also associated with a context dating to the Late Antique period. The dating of two ceramic shards (F794 and F940) from (fragments of) vessels that were reused to hold paint (orange-reddish and blue pigment respectively) remains uncertain.

A significant number of small translucent glass fragments were recovered from deposits connected to the Late Antique period. The majority of the sherds are fragments of a very common type of wineglass made from pale blue and green glass with a tapering body of thin walls, short cylindric stem and concave circular base with impressions of criss-cross tooling on the upper surface.117 It is attested throughout the eastern Mediterranean during the sixth century,118 with Egyptian parallels attested in Saqqara,119 El-Amarna,120 Marea121 and Kom el-Dikka.122 The finds include fragments that preserve parts of the stem and the lower part of the rounded body of the glass (F934) (Fig. 65), the decorated foot (e.g. F839 and F879), and a body shard decorated with three horizontal lines (F770). Traces of other types of glass fragments are attested in the form of fragments of flattened, hollow rims (e.g. F846), fragments with walls that were less than 0.05 mm thick and an elongated, cylindric neck (F850), and a fragment with a cylindric neck and slightly flaring rim of a glass vessel (F935).123 A small shard (6.2 × 3.8 × 0.3 cm) of a sheet of white translucent glass (F778) may perhaps have belonged to a window.

181 A substantial number of fragments is dated to the New Kingdom. A small fragment (3.2 × 10 cm) of a wooden coffin (F933) is dated to the Eighteenth to Nineteenth Dynasty based on the black varnish decoration with traces of an inscription in yellow paint.124 Ramesside shabtis of various types were found in deposits in the area of the tomb of Panehsy and the area north of the tomb of Maya. Three fragmentary and very damaged wooden Ramesside shabtis (F816, F896, F897, see also Section 8.2.3) were found in two adjacent deposits (contexts 521 and 522). Two of these showed traces of black pigment. Two fragmentary ceramic shabtis (F806 and F985) were recovered in addition to the fragment of a limestone mummiform ushabti (F975) with an illegible inscription. A group of five Ramesside ceramic shabtis (F 973A–E) was found inside a small limestone chapel built with reused decorated slabs (context 535). They are made from red ceramic and have curved feet.125 Four shabtis are mummiform with a tripartite wig, holding hoes in clenched fists folded across the chest, while the fifth shabti (F973E) (Fig. 66) is an overseer wearing a long dress and a duplex wig. Details and inscriptions are indicated in black ink, now mostly lost. A very similar set of ceramic shabtis, with three mummiform examples and one overseer, was discovered on the pavement in the north-east corner of the forecourt of the tomb of Tia.126 As with the five Ramesside shabtis described above, these shabtis were moulded from the front, leaving surplus clay along the edges.

Among the finds dating to the Late Ramesside and Third Intermediate Periods are ten undecorated fragments of ceramic coffins and the clenched fist from a small wooden coffin (F805), bearing traces of yellow, red and black pigment. A fragment of a serpentine globular jar (F774) should perhaps be dated to the Third Intermediate Period.127 Traces from the Late Period include 55 fragments of a variety of small faience shabtis, often uninscribed, and various kinds of faience beads and amulets.

In the subterranean chambers of the tomb of Panehsy, fragments of Ramesside calcite canopic jars (F999, F1009, F1010, F1011) were recovered, which seem to form a single set and are related to a fragment (F744) found in the 2022 season in subterranean Chamber B of the tomb of Panehsy. Fragment F1009 (Fig. 67) is a larger fragment preserving 182 a scene carved in low relief with the deceased wearing a long dress standing in adoration before the god Osiris wearing the atef-crown, a design that shows some similarity to the canopic jars from the nearby tomb of Tia and Tia.128 This fragment and fragment F744 are inscribed for the owner Paynedjem, a first prophet of Hathor, mistress of the sycamore.129 Two fragments of limestone canopic jars (F1012 and F1013) from the subterranean complex of Panehsy’s tomb are also attributed to the New Kingdom. The latter seems to be a very weathered falcon-headed lid representing Qebehsenuef.130

8.1. Textiles

(Valentina Turina)

During the 2022 excavation campaign, a detailed study focused on textile fragments recovered during the 2019 excavation season. The study included photographic documentation of all textile fragments from individual excavation contexts (Fig. 68). The most interesting finds were photographed individually. The corpus contained approximately 800 fragments of different sizes, most of which date to the so-called Pharaonic period. The majority of the fragments were found out of context in the modern spoil heaps resulting from excavations conducted in the 1980s and 1990s,131 with very few indications of their exact dating and original use. The present study examined the original dimensions, shape and technical characteristics of a selection of 44 of the most interesting fragments, taking into consideration the presence of selvedges, warp and weft fringes, starting/finishing borders, any kinds of woven decoration, and dyed yarns. The most significant technical details identified during the study are summarized below:

183 Context 321 and 324 contained textile fragments that could be identified as five fragments of a loincloth (Fig. 69) and one fragment of a tunic. It is probable that the loincloth fragments all belong to a single loincloth, as indicated by the shape, size and state of preservation. Examination of the fragments resulted in a hypothetical reconstruction of the original loincloth (Fig. 70). It merits a more in-depth analysis to determine the fibre characterization, weaving technique and crease mitigation treatment.

In addition, a small fragment of a fabric with colourful wefts in blue, red and white was identified from context 322. We hope to conduct a more detailed study in the coming seasons, in the hope that an examination of the distinctive decorative bands will help to determine its date.

During the 2022 season, preliminary conservation treatments were carried out, such as basic cleaning and crease mitigation. After treatment, all textile fragments were placed in individual plastic bags, perforated to avoid the formation of condensation. These essential measures carried out with basic equipment, and it will be important to monitor and reassess this housing method in the future.

8.2 Wood analysis

(Caroline Arbuckle MacLeod)

184-185 During the 2023 season, there were three goals to accomplish regarding wood analysis: 1) to complete an assessment of the wood and construction of coffins 127A and 130A, excavated during the 1999 season; 2) to complete an assessment of wooden shabtis F896, F816, and F897; and 3) to provide a general overview of the wooden fragments discovered during the 2022 excavation season.

8.2.2 Analysis of the coffins

Coffins 127A and 130A were initially discovered in the 1999 excavation season.134 A thorough analysis of the coffins, including suggestions for their date of construction, details of their decoration, and basic construction, was subsequently published.135 Wood species was not recorded in the publication of either coffin. After this initial analysis, the coffins were placed back in a storehouse. During the 2023 season, the coffin wood was reassessed so that additional valuable information, particularly species identification, could be ascertained.

The initial publications noted that the coffin wood was in a poor state of preservation. By 2023, the wood had deteriorated further. It had become quite soft due to fluctuations in temperature and moisture, and there is extensive evidence of both ancient and modern insect damage. Some of the pieces were found to consist almost entirely of paint, plaster, and frass (the remains left after insect infestation). Many of the pieces therefore do not preserve the anatomical structures necessary for wood identification; nevertheless, a selection of larger and better-preserved fragments allowed for all major coffin sections and some added details to be assessed.

Coffin 127A is a rectangular black coffin with a gabled lid that is believed to date to the latter half of the Eighteenth Dynasty, probably from between the reigns of Amenhotep III and Tutankhamun (Fig. 71).136 Of the 66 remaining pieces of Coffin 127A, 36 were analysed. This included three tenons and two dowels, and 31 fragments of the planks used for the coffin, one of which is too deteriorated to provide an identification. The 30 remaining pieces of the coffin plank wood were identified as sycamore fig (Ficus sycomorus), while one tenon and the two dowels are acacia (Vachellia nilotica), and the remaining two tenons are tamarisk (Tamarix spp.). While the basic construction and decoration information was part of the previous publication,137 the following details were not mentioned. The planks of wood were produced by means of a plainsawn or flat-grained method. The planks were edge-joined with mortise and tenons and dowels, and connected at the corners with dovetail joints. Saw and chisel marks are visible in many areas. Large amounts of plaster were also applied to gaps in the joints or faults in the wood. For larger holes, wads of linen were inserted inside and covered over with plaster before the application of the decorative black layer (Fig. 72). The inner edge joints of a number of the long planks were painted red (Fig. 73).

Of coffin 130A, only the lid is preserved, providing an example of an anthropoid coffin with mostly white and black decoration that is believed to date to the mid-Eighteenth Dynasty, probably around the reign of Amenhotep III (Fig. 74).138 Of the 59 remaining pieces of Coffin 130A, 21 were analysed. These included 17 major parts of the coffin, such as planks and separately added carved hands, wig, and foot board, as well as four dowels. It should be noted that the face of the coffin could not be assessed. All 17 major coffin pieces were identified as sycamore fig wood (Ficus sycomorus), and all four dowels as tamarisk wood (Tamarix spp.). While the basic construction and decoration information can be found in the previous publication,139 the following details were not included. As with 127A, the planks of wood were produced through a plainsawn or flat-grained method. The coffin planks were largely edge-joined together with dowels, with mortise and tenon joints used largely along the edge of the lid. A large dovetail joint was used to hold the footboard in place. Rough tool marks are visible in the areas of the coffin joints, showing clear saw and chisel marks. These are particularly visible on the areas where the hands were attached (Fig. 75), and on the foot board (Fig. 76). On the latter, additional faint remnants of red paint are visible. Faint traces of red paint are also visible on several inner edge joints of the planks (Fig. 77).

Sycamore fig wood is the most common local species found for the construction of coffins in all periods of Pharaonic ancient Egypt.140 It is a versatile wood, but it is relatively soft and therefore it was common practice to use harder woods such as tamarisk or acacia for the dowels or tenons that held sycamore fig planks together.141 The construction techniques of coffins 127A and 130A align with those seen elsewhere in ancient Egypt for the production of coffins belonging to what might be considered an upper middle class, i.e. individuals of some means, though not belonging to the upper echelons of society.142 The use of the plainsawn method to log reduction for initial plank production maximizes the yield of usable construction timber from a round log. Other methods, like quartersawn, are more selective about the grain direction. Although this produces waste, it ensures more consistent moisture content across each plank and reduces the likelihood of warping. The latter seems to be used rarely in ancient Egypt, even for higher quality objects, suggesting that the Egyptians were concerned with preserving timber, which is reasonable given their dry environment.

Additional details suggest that the craftspeople who produced these coffins were working swiftly and took certain shortcuts as they worked. For the highest quality objects, all surfaces of the piece were smoothed during the finishing process, requiring only a thin layer of plaster to be applied as a base for additional decoration. This produces not only a much more finished and smooth appearance but also helps the object to remain intact longer. The use of wads of linen and thick layers of plaster, particularly for coffin 127A, shows that the carpenters, and perhaps their patrons, were willing to sacrifice these more time intensive, and therefore likely expensive, steps in production. Moreover, the lack of imported woods and expensive decorative techniques like gilding and inlay, which were used for contemporary royal and high elite coffins, contributes to our impression that the owners of these coffins were less affluent.

Other details provide insight into some of the choices and actions of the carpenters, capturing moments of dynamic activity frozen in the material record. On the foot of coffin 130A, for instance, the initial saw marks across the face of the piece are still visible (Fig. 76, A). The kerf of the saw cut that was used to produce the dovetail socket is also visible, as the carpenter cut slightly too far into the wood (Fig. 76, B). The sides of this socket were initially cut with a saw, and then finished with a chisel (Fig. 76, C). A faint red line still remains near the edge of the socket (Fig. 76, D). This served as a guideline, used as the carpenters were planning out the carving of the socket. However, it seems that the carpenter ultimately decided to reduce its size, perhaps illustrating an ancient example of the principle “measure twice, cut once”.

A final important detail is the use of the red paint on the interior joints of the coffins. The inner joints and the lid and case rims of coffins were frequently painted red and sometimes inscribed with spells. This method of protection was used throughout Pharaonic ancient Egypt from the Old Kingdom through to the Third Intermediate Period.143 The Egyptians believed red was a potent colour: by applying it to the rims and joints of coffins, craftsmen seem to have been invoking its apotropaic properties to safeguard these structurally vulnerable areas from potentially negative forces. As this process was undertaken during the construction of the coffin, it suggests that carpenters possessed a level of religious 188 knowledge. This intentional practice is vividly expressed in the joints of coffin 127A, while the faint traces on 130A (Fig. 76, E) suggest the possibility, though with less certainty.

8.2.3 Analysis of the wooden shabtis

During the 2023 season, several wooden shabti were discovered, and were given find numbers F896 (Fig. 78), F816 (Fig. 79), and F897 (Fig. 80). F896 and F897 are from context 521, and F816 is from context 522 (see section 7.2 for additional contextual information). Only F896 is mostly intact, with a height of 16.9 cm. F816 is missing part of the foot, the surviving height being 15.2 cm, and F897 preserves only the foot area, measuring 5.7 cm in height. All three are roughly carved into an anthropoid form. F896 has a modelled head but lacks detailed features. The end of a wig is indicated on the back, and geometrically formed feet have been added. F816 is similar, with more clearly indicated arms. Only the geometric feet remain for F897. All three are quite poorly preserved, with indications of insect damage. Some faint remnants of black material can also be observed. On all three, tool marks are still visible, suggesting little to no effort at smoothing during the finishing stages of production. Sampling was not permitted for F896, due to its superior preservation, but the wood for both F816 and F897 was identified as tamarisk (Tamarix spp.).

Shabtis discovered in previous seasons share a similar form, with traces of black pigment observed on wooden shabtis recovered from the stratigraphic layer overlying the forecourt and south-east chapel of the tomb of Meryneith.144 These were dated to the late Eighteenth or early Nineteenth Dynasties, suggesting a similar date for this group. The use of tamarisk for shabtis is also quite common. In fact, Coffin Text 472 from the Middle Kingdom specifically states that tamarisk is an effective material to be used for the manufacture of shabtis.145

9.1 Research location, objectives and ground surface conditions

The objective of the magnetic survey carried out in the 2022 and 2023 seasons was to establish the extent of the New Kingdom cemetery in the area south of the set of tombs uncovered in previous years within the concession of the Leiden-Turin excavation. This area had already been partially prospected by Ian Mathieson’s Saqqara Geophysical Survey,146 however a recent magnetic survey at Abusir South, carried out within the framework of research of the Czech Institute of Egyptology of the Charles University in Prague, has demonstrated the potential for more precise imaging of subsurface structures using the same survey method and measurement apparatus.147

The survey covered an area of 8 ha, bounded to the north by archaeological dump heaps from the excavation of the tomb of Horemheb and nearby tombs, as well as by the monastery of St Jeremiah (Fig. 81). In the western part, the ground has numerous small mounds and depressions of various sizes, indicating modern excavation activities predating the twentieth century. The southwestern boundary follows in part a descending slope toward a wide wadi, which runs southeast and then south, which also bears evidence of modern excavation. The eastern part is largely devoid of surface traces of exploration. The central section follows the top of a ridge running roughly NW–SE; the northeastern and southwestern parts of this ridge were surveyed at this time. The southern slope ends in the wadi mentioned above, while the northern one reaches a wide valley which was presumably the main road connecting the monastery of St Jeremiah with the Nile Valley. Earlier excavations in areas that are now fenced off, situated at the center of the survey area, were excluded from the current study.

9.2 Survey methodology

The applied magnetic survey method has a proven 191 effectiveness in tracing the remains of mud-brick structures found in a sandy environment.148 This is due to the magnetic responsiveness of the Nile silt used to make the bricks, which results from the iron oxide content in the mud.149 The method has been the primary non-invasive survey method used in Saqqara over the past 50 years.150 Measurements have been carried out with a fluxgate gradiometer, which has a resolution of 0.1 nanotesla (nT) (Geoscan Research FM256) and records the vertical component of magnetic field intensity. Sampling density was set at eight measurements per square meter, collected in zigzag mode (where the gradiometer was carried in alternating directions) within a 20-metre square grid and with traverses spaced 0.5 m apart. The grid was positioned at an angle to the cardinal directions based on a methodological assumption: measuring along lines that are angled relative to the axis of symmetry of the structures helps to map architectural features (especially walls) in the clearest way. The general east–west orientation of the tombs, defined by their longitudinal axes, was established through prior archaeological excavations and corroborated by Mathieson’s geophysical survey.

9.3 Survey results

A number of linear anomalies can be observed on the magnetic map of the western part of the surveyed area, where earlier research had already indicated the presence of structures interpreted as tombs with mud-brick architecture. Some of these anomalies connect in rectangular complexes, measuring approximately 8–12 m in length and 5–8 m across the shorter axis. In two places, the rectilinear anomalies form larger complexes covering an area of approximately 15 × 20 m (southern part of square G1, Fig. 82) to 20 × 50 m (southern part of square H4). The eastern border of the area with mud-brick structures appears to run along a north–south line, between squares C4 and H8. The southern limits cross the centre of square H7.

The changes of the magnetic values mapped in the eastern part of the surveyed area (that is, east 192 of the hypothetical line marking the eastern extent of the New Kingdom cemetery) suggest architecture built of both dried mud and fired brick. Clusters of anomalies with higher magnetic values and a small diameter (up to 1–2 m) correspond to concentrations of fired brick. The extent of these clusters was determined with a standard deviation analysis (Fig. 83). The most distinct cluster, covering a rectangular area measuring a maximum of about 50 × 25 m can be observed in the eastern part of the magnetic map (squares A8 and A9, and by the northeastern edge of B8, Fig. 82). The nature of this anomaly is such that it suggests fired brick as the primary building material in this area. Southeast of this feature (squares B8 and B9) is another set of anomalies with the same orientation, corresponding in this case to a mud-brick structure with only a few fired bricks. To the north, west and south are linear anomalies corresponding to features constructed of mud brick, which are most probably an enclosure wall around this structure. Remains of architecture can be seen on either side of the western end of this enclosure wall, presumably mud brick for the most part on the western side and a concentration of fired bricks on the eastern side. Further complexes can be seen on the map in squares C5, D6, E7, and smaller structures were detected in squares D8 and D9. They are of identical orientation as the structure within the enclosure wall and are apparently constructed of both fired brick and mud brick. The buildings noted in the northeastern part of square E8 and around the border between squares F8 and G8 were constructed of mud brick. The survey also mapped open areas, either streets or urban squares. A street about 5 m wide runs north–south between the northern part of square E8 and the eastern part of square D7. Rectangular structures can be seen in the northeastern part of the area inside the enclosure wall (square C8). The use of fired brick and a provisional examination of ceramic fragments visible on the surface in these architectural complexes in the eastern part of the surveyed area suggest they are structures dating to the Late Antique period.

Structures of a different nature were detected at the southeastern edge of the surveyed area. The anomalies appear to be constructed of mud brick and have walls up to 3 m thick. The most complete image is of a rectangular structure about 25 m long 193 and 15 m wide, present in square E8. A narrower structure of similar length lies to the east of this building. The anomaly in square F9 is also of similar length. These structures share the same orientation (longer axes aligned northeast–southwest), which is remarkably different from that the east–west orientation observed in the New Kingdom necropolis and in the Late Antique architecture in the area south of the Unas causeway. A structure in square G8 is oriented like most New Kingdom tombs in this area of Saqqara, although its longer axis is actually perpendicular to the axes of the tombs.

Finally, the survey also detected contemporary interventions in the landscape, such as the linear anomalies with a large amplitude of values (between squares G1 and F4, F6 and H7 and in C3 and C4) that correspond to the presence of modern power lines.

9.4 Interpretation and conclusions

A graphic interpretation was prepared (Fig. 83) on the basis of an analysis of the anomalies. In the area of the New Kingdom necropolis, the measurements reveal only parts of individual tombs. This appears to be due to the state of preservation: the most distinct anomalies, characterised by the highest magnetic values, correspond to walls situated close to the ground surface at a depth of no more than 0.3–0.5 m (e.g. in squares G3 or H4).151 The gaps in the walls seen in the magnetic image are related to walls at a greater depth (at least 1 m) or walls that were completely destroyed during exploration in the previous century and earlier.

The meaning of the architectural complex discovered in the eastern part of the surveyed area, located within an enclosure wall, is better understood in the context of the architecture uncovered in the immediate vicinity (just 50 m away) at the beginning of the 20th century, namely, the monastery of St Jeremiah (Fig. 83). The newly detected complex appears to be a monastic compound with practically the same orientation as the monastery of St Jeremiah. Thus, the structure built of fired brick is most probably a church, perhaps 40 m by 19 m, which corresponds almost exactly to the dimensions of the church inside the monastery of St Jeremiah.152 An analysis of the ground topography supports this interpretation. The outline of the church walls matches the small mounds visible at this location. An evident embankment corresponds to what would have been the south wall of the church, while the mounds are highest in the eastern corners 194 of the building (Fig. 84). The gap in the northern section of the wall (square A7) might have been a gate giving access to the neighbouring monastery. The same orientation of the architecture on the eastern and southern sides of the enclosure wall suggests it is contemporaneous with the use of the monastery. The layout of the newly detected monastic compound could be only partially reconstructed. The width of the complex was ascertained at about 83 m. Determining the full dimensions of the complex requires further investigation toward the east.

10.1 Previous research on Egyptian archaeological workforces

195 There is significant scholarship on the history of Egyptian workforces in archaeological excavations. The monograph Hidden Hands (2010) by Stephen Quirke155 is a contribution that paved the way for the documentation and study of the legacy of the archaeological workmen through an analysis of William Flinders Petrie’s excavation notebooks and diaries. This book opened the door to better understanding and acknowledging the contribution of generations of archaeological workmen who mostly originated from the village of Quft. Further research by Joanne Rowland,156 Wendy Doyon157 and Maximilian Georg158 added considerable detail to the complex histories of various archaeological workforces in Egypt through different perspectives and studying additional archival sources. Current research projects that study the contribution of archaeological workmen in Egypt across different archaeological sites, regions and timeframes include the Abydos Archive Project159 and the Arabic Diaries Project.160 Combined, this body of scholarship provided inspiration and a baseline for the current research project, which has formulated its own priorities related to geographic, temporal and social aspects.

10.2 Fieldwork of the 2022 season

In anticipation of the 2022 field season, the team started in September 2022 with a general plan for the fieldwork through a survey of literature on Egyptian archaeological workmen and writing a basic questionnaire for the interviews with workmen as part of the data collection. The preliminary questionnaire included the following questions:

The fieldwork for the project commenced on 14 October and ended on 26 October 2022. During twelve full days of fieldwork, the project team gathered valuable data thanks to the collaboration of several team members of the expedition: workmen, inspectors, archaeologists and directors. The first day of fieldwork was spent getting to know the team of archaeological workmen who participated in the 2022 excavation season through introductions by Mr. Hossam ‘Azzam, the foreman (rais) of the crew. The project team spent the day examining the general distribution of work within the workforce. Thanks to the kind collaboration of Mr. Hossam ‘Azzam, the project team was then able to schedule research interviews with a large group of the workforce. In addition, the project team is very grateful for the interview with Dr. Mohamed Youssef, director of the Saqqara inspectorate at the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, who generously shared his knowledge and key insights on the research topic.

During the first day of interviews with the archaeological workmen, the complexity of the project became increasingly apparent. The point of departure for each interview with the workmen was the prepared questionnaire, but thanks to the generosity of the interviewed workmen and their readiness to share their stories with us, we were gradually able to develop the questionnaire to cover in different levels of detail the multiple aspects of their contribution to the Leiden-Turin excavations and other archaeological missions in Saqqara. In total, the project undertook almost 15 interviews with many of the workmen of the 2022 season of the Leiden-Turin mission. 196 These interviews formed the basis of an initial assessment of key aspects of the research, including:

In addition to interviews with archaeological workmen, the project team also spoke to non-Egyptian team members of the Leiden-Turin Expedition to Saqqara in order to include their perspectives, memories and professional encounters with the workmen of the mission. The project team held an interview with Lara Weiss and informal conversations with other team members to record their memories of and stories about the archaeological workmen, with a brief questionnaire as the point of departure. It included the following questions:

10.3 Preliminary results

A preliminary analysis of the collected data was published in 2023.161 As part of the reconstruction of the histories, legacies and networks of archaeological workmen in Saqqara, one of the most significant outcomes of the research to date sheds more light on the legacy of foreman Rubi Hamzawi (c. 1838–1904). On the first day of fieldwork, the project team interviewed foreman Hossam ‘Azzam who revealed that his grandfather was foreman Rubi Hamzawi who had also worked at Saqqara. Rubi Hamzawi had inherited the profession of archaeological foreman from his father, foreman Hamzawi (†1873), who had led the workforce in the excavations at Saqqara in the 1850s, led by Auguste Mariette (1821-1881). At the time, his son Rubi Hamzawi was working at the same excavations as a basket boy at the age of twelve until about twenty years later when he became the foreman of the archaeological workforce that excavated the Serapeum of Saqqara under Mariette’s directorship.162 The legacy of foreman Rubi Hamzawi is significant for a number of reasons. It highlights the story of a local archaeological workman and his family that has been engaged in archaeological excavations in Saqqara since the mid-nineteenth century. This case study also provides insights into the history of archaeological labor in Egypt before the excavations of William Flinders Petrie in the early 1880s and his employment of workmen from Quft.

Another outcome of the research project was a short documentary film that was shot and directed by Servaas Neijens, which includes footage of the interviews conducted in 2022163 combined with relevant film clips of the work in the field and photographs of previous excavations and individuals. The film was edited in the winter of 2022-2023. Arabic texts were translated by Mahmoud Ibrahim and Nurhan Ameen and subtitles were compiled by Noha El Hennawy. The Egyptian premiere of the film took place on 16 March 2023 at the Netherlands-Flemish Institute in Cairo (Fig. 87). 197 Another screening in Cairo took place at the Institut français d’archéologie orientale on 24 May 2023 and was preceded by a presentation about the project by Fatma Keshk. The event was attended by some of the workmen who are featured in the film. The film premiered in the Netherlands on 3 June 2023 during the Saqqara Day in Leiden organised by the Friends of Saqqara Foundation.

10.4 Further research

The project will continue to analyse the collected data to further the study of the legacy of the archaeological workforce in Saqqara and the ways in which it is interconnected to the history of archaeological research in Egypt, the history of Egyptology and the social history of Egypt in the late 19th century and the early 20th century. Research plans include a scientific exchange between our project team and other scholars currently engaged in research on archaeological workmen in Egypt.